docs: update QEMU mode docs for =PATH syntax and uncompressed initramfs

- hard links in the rootfs were written as zero-size entries with no
  inode set (all zero), so the kernel could link them to the wrong file;
  assign a synthetic inode per (device, inode) group.
- build the cpio archive by streaming entries to disk instead of holding
  the whole archive in memory.
- the VM command was joined into a single string and shell-expanded in
  the guest, mangling quotes and nested commands; pass the argv
  base64-encoded (ECR_ARGV) and exec it verbatim.
- parse ecr parameters from /proc/cmdline in the init script, set the
  hostname via procfs (arch has no hostname binary), and give the serial
  console a moment to drain before poweroff.

Cargo.lock

@@ -301,6 +301,7 @@ name = "ecr"
 version = "0.1.0"
 dependencies = [
  "anyhow",
+ "base64",
  "clap",
  "cpio",
  "dirs",

Cargo.toml

@@ -37,6 +37,7 @@ anyhow = "1"
 dirs = "6"
 which = "7"
 cpio = "0.4"
+base64 = "0.22"
 tokio = { version = "1", features = ["rt-multi-thread", "macros", "io-util"] }
 futures-util = "0.3"
 indicatif = "0.18"

README.md

@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ ecr [OPTIONS] <DISTRO[:VERSION]> [-- COMMAND...]
 | `--no-cache` | Force a fresh download, bypassing the cache |
 | `-v, --verbose` | Print diagnostic output (URLs, layer info, extraction steps) |
 | `-a, --arch <ARCH>` | Target architecture (`amd64`, `arm64`, `armhf`, `riscv64`, …) |
-| `--kernel [PATH]` | Boot with QEMU system emulation. Downloads Alpine's `linux-virt` kernel if no path provided |
+| `--kernel[=PATH]` | Boot with QEMU system emulation. Downloads Alpine's `linux-virt` kernel if no `=PATH` given |
 | `-m, --memory <SIZE>` | Memory for QEMU VM (default: 2G, only with `--kernel`) |
 
 ## Examples
@@ -62,8 +62,8 @@ ecr --no-cache fedora
 # Boot with QEMU system emulation (auto-downloads default kernel)
 ecr --kernel alpine
 
-# Boot with your own kernel
+# Boot with your own kernel (note the `=` — a space would parse the path as the distro)
-ecr --kernel /boot/vmlinuz ubuntu
+ecr --kernel=/boot/vmlinuz ubuntu
 
 # Boot with custom memory
 ecr --kernel --memory 4G alpine
@@ -78,16 +78,18 @@ When `--kernel` is specified, ecr boots the rootfs in a full QEMU virtual machin
 ecr --kernel alpine
 
 # Use your own kernel
-ecr --kernel /boot/vmlinuz ubuntu
+ecr --kernel=/boot/vmlinuz ubuntu
 ```
 
 This mode:
-- Creates a gzipped CPIO initramfs from the rootfs
+- Creates an uncompressed CPIO initramfs from the rootfs (streamed to disk)
 - Boots QEMU with your kernel (or auto-downloads Alpine's `linux-virt` kernel)
 - Provides full VM isolation
 - Works for any architecture (no binfmt_misc needed)
 - Caches the default kernel in `~/.cache/ecr/`
 
+Host bind mounts (`--bind`, `--bind-rw`) are not applied in this mode.
+
 Requirements:
 - `qemu-system-<arch>` installed
 - For custom kernels: kernel must have serial console support

SPEC.md

@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ ecr [OPTIONS] <DISTRO[:VERSION]> -- [COMMAND]...
 | `--bind-rw <path>` | none | Read-write bind mount at `/mnt/<basename>` (can be specified multiple times, overrides `--bind` for same path) |
 | `--no-cache` | false | Download fresh tarball, ignore cache |
 | `--no-bind` | false | Skip mounting any directory |
-| `--kernel <path>` | none | Boot with QEMU system emulation using specified kernel (triggers disk image creation) |
+| `--kernel[=PATH]` | none | Boot with QEMU system emulation; downloads the default Alpine `linux-virt` kernel when no `=PATH` is given |
 | `-m, --memory <size>` | 2G | Memory size for QEMU VM (only used with `--kernel`) |
 | `-v, --verbose` | false | Print diagnostic messages |
 | `-h, --help` | - | Show help |
@@ -187,35 +187,38 @@ No action required. Modern qemu-user-static packages register binfmt_misc with t
 
 ## QEMU System Emulation Mode
 
-When `--kernel` is specified, ecr switches from namespace/chroot mode to QEMU system emulation. The extracted rootfs is converted to a gzipped CPIO initramfs and booted with the provided kernel.
+When `--kernel` is specified, ecr switches from namespace/chroot mode to QEMU system emulation. The extracted rootfs is converted to an uncompressed CPIO initramfs and booted with the provided kernel.
 
 ### Usage
 
+The kernel path uses `=` syntax (`--kernel=PATH`); `--kernel` without a value downloads the default kernel. Without `=`, a following path would be parsed as the DISTRO argument.
+
 ```sh
-ecr --kernel /boot/vmlinuz ubuntu:noble
+ecr --kernel ubuntu:noble
-ecr --kernel /boot/vmlinuz --memory 4G alpine
+ecr --kernel=/boot/vmlinuz ubuntu:noble
-ecr --kernel /boot/vmlinuz debian -- /bin/sh -c "echo hello"
+ecr --kernel=/boot/vmlinuz --memory 4G alpine
+ecr --kernel=/boot/vmlinuz debian -- /bin/sh -c "echo hello"
 ```
 
 ### Execution Flow
 
 1. Download/cache rootfs tarball (same as namespace mode)
 2. Extract tarball to temporary directory
-3. Create gzipped CPIO initramfs from rootfs
+3. Create uncompressed CPIO initramfs from rootfs (streamed to disk), including essential device nodes (/dev/ttyS0, /dev/null, /dev/tty) and an `/init` script that mounts proc/sys/dev, sets the hostname, execs the requested command argv verbatim (each argv element base64-encoded in the cmdline as `ECR_ARGV`), and powers off on exit
 4. Launch QEMU with:
-   - `-kernel <path>` - provided kernel
+   - `-kernel <path>` - provided (or downloaded) kernel
-   - `-initrd initramfs.cpio.gz` - rootfs as initramfs
+   - `-initrd initramfs.cpio` - rootfs as initramfs
-   - `-append "console=ttyS0 quiet rdinit=/bin/sh -- -c \"setsid sh -c 'exec sh </dev/ttyS0 >/dev/ttyS0 2>&1'\""` - kernel command line
+   - `-append "console=ttyS0 [quiet] ECR_SHELL=... [ECR_ARGV=...] ECR_HOSTNAME=..."` - kernel command line (`quiet` unless `-v`)
-7. Essential device nodes (/dev/ttyS0, /dev/null, /dev/tty) are added to initramfs for proper console support
    - `-m <memory>` - memory size (default 2G)
    - `-display none -serial mon:stdio` - console on stdio
-   - `-netdev user,id=net0 -device virtio-net-pci,netdev=net0` - network
+   - `-netdev user,id=net0 -device virtio-net-pci,netdev=net0` - network NIC
-5. Wait for QEMU to exit
+   - `-enable-kvm -cpu host` - when the host supports KVM and the target matches the host architecture
+5. Wait for QEMU to exit (init powers the VM off when the command/shell exits; `-no-reboot` makes QEMU terminate)
 6. Cleanup temporary files
 
 ### Initramfs Creation
 
-The rootfs directory is converted to a gzipped CPIO archive (newc format) using  the `cpio` crate.
+The rootfs directory is converted to an uncompressed CPIO archive (newc format) using the `cpio` crate, streamed entry by entry so large rootfs images never need to fit in memory. Hard links are preserved: the first occurrence of a (device, inode) pair carries the data with a synthetic inode, subsequent occurrences are zero-size entries sharing that inode, which the kernel's initramfs loader turns into real hard links.
 
 ### Architecture Support
 
@@ -238,11 +241,11 @@ The rootfs directory is converted to a gzipped CPIO archive (newc format) using
 | Feature | Namespace Mode | QEMU Mode |
 |---------|---------------|-----------|
 | Isolation | User namespace | Full VM |
-| Performance | Near-native | Emulated (slower) |
+| Performance | Near-native | Emulated (KVM-accelerated when available) |
-| Root access | No | No |
+| Root access | No | Yes (inside the VM) |
 | Foreign arch | binfmt_misc required | Built-in emulation |
-| Bind mounts | Overlay/bind | Not supported |
+| Bind mounts | Overlay/bind | Not supported (flags are ignored with a warning) |
-| Network | Host network | User-mode network |
+| Network | Host network | User-mode NIC (not configured inside the guest) |
 
 ## File Handling
 

src/cli.rs

@@ -33,12 +33,20 @@ pub struct Args {
     #[arg(short = 'v', long)]
     pub verbose: bool,
 
-    /// Boot with QEMU system emulation (optionally specify kernel path, or omit to download default)
+    /// Boot with QEMU system emulation (optionally specify kernel path with =PATH, or omit to download default)
     ///
     /// Examples:
     ///   --kernel             Download and use the default Alpine linux-virt kernel
-    ///   --kernel ./vmlinuz Use a specific kernel file
+    ///   --kernel=./vmlinuz   Use a specific kernel file
-    #[arg(long, value_name = "KERNEL_PATH", num_args = 0..=1)]
+    ///
+    /// The kernel path must use `=` syntax: with `--kernel ./vmlinuz` the
+    /// path would be parsed as the DISTRO argument.
+    #[arg(
+        long,
+        value_name = "KERNEL_PATH",
+        num_args = 0..=1,
+        require_equals = true
+    )]
     pub kernel: Option<Option<PathBuf>>,
 
     /// Memory size for QEMU VM (only used with --kernel, e.g., 512M, 2G)

src/kernel.rs

@@ -224,12 +224,11 @@ fn download_alpine_kernel(branch: &str, arch: &str, dest: &Path) -> Result<()> {
     // Extract vmlinuz-virt from the APK
     // APK files are gzip-compressed tar archives
     let temp_apk = dest.with_extension("apk");
-    extract_kernel_from_apk(&temp_apk, dest)?;
+    // Remove the ~45MB APK whatever the extraction outcome — don't leave
-
+    // it behind in the cache directory on failure.
-    // Clean up the APK
+    let result = extract_kernel_from_apk(&temp_apk, dest);
     std::fs::remove_file(&temp_apk).ok();
-
+    result
-    Ok(())
 }
 
 async fn download_kernel_async(url: &str, dest: &Path) -> Result<()> {
@@ -316,6 +315,7 @@ fn extract_kernel_from_apk(apk_path: &Path, dest: &Path) -> Result<()> {
             // Extract to destination
             entry.unpack(dest).context("Failed to extract kernel")?;
             veprintln!("  Extracted kernel to: {}", dest.display());
+            return Ok(());
         }
     }
 

src/main.rs

@@ -130,11 +130,20 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
     extract_tarball(&cache_path, &rootfs)?;
 
     // Branch based on --kernel flag
-    // Option<Option<PathBuf>>:
+    // Option<Option<PathBuf>> (require_equals: the value must use =PATH syntax
+    // so it can never swallow the DISTRO positional):
     //   None              -> --kernel not specified, use namespace mode
     //   Some(None)        -> --kernel without path, download default kernel
-    //   Some(Some(path))  -> --kernel /path/to/vmlinuz, use provided kernel
+    //   Some(Some(path))  -> --kernel=/path/to/vmlinuz, use provided kernel
     if let Some(kernel_opt) = &args.kernel {
+        // VM mode boots an initramfs: host bind mounts are never applied
+        if !args.bind.is_empty() || !args.bind_rw.is_empty() {
+            eprintln!(
+                "Warning: --bind/--bind-rw are ignored with --kernel \
+                 (the VM boots from an initramfs, no host directories are mounted)"
+            );
+        }
+
         // QEMU system mode
         let kernel_path = match kernel_opt {
             Some(path) => {
@@ -169,12 +178,19 @@ fn main() -> Result<()> {
         result
     } else {
         // Namespace/chroot mode
-        namespace_mode(args, rootfs, config)
+        let exit_code = namespace_mode(args, rootfs, config)?;
+        // Propagate the command's exit code, cleaning up the extracted rootfs
+        // first: process::exit does not run destructors.
+        drop(temp_dir);
+        if exit_code != 0 {
+            std::process::exit(exit_code);
+        }
+        Ok(())
     }
 }
 
-/// Run in namespace/chroot mode
+/// Run in namespace/chroot mode, returning the command's exit code
-fn namespace_mode(args: Args, rootfs: std::path::PathBuf, config: Config) -> Result<()> {
+fn namespace_mode(args: Args, rootfs: std::path::PathBuf, config: Config) -> Result<i32> {
     // Check user namespace availability
     namespace::check_user_namespace()?;
 

src/namespace.rs

@@ -58,8 +58,10 @@ pub fn check_user_namespace() -> Result<()> {
     Ok(())
 }
 
-/// Setup namespaces and run the provided function inside them
+/// Setup namespaces and run the provided function inside them.
-pub fn setup_namespaces<F>(f: F) -> Result<()>
+/// Returns the child's exit code (0 on success, 128+signal when killed by a
+/// signal). Setup failures are returned as Err.
+pub fn setup_namespaces<F>(f: F) -> Result<i32>
 where
     F: FnOnce() -> Result<()> + Send + 'static,
 {
@@ -222,20 +224,18 @@ where
     let status = nix::sys::wait::waitpid(pid, None)?;
 
     match status {
-        nix::sys::wait::WaitStatus::Exited(_, 0) => Ok(()),
+        nix::sys::wait::WaitStatus::Exited(_, 0) => Ok(0),
         nix::sys::wait::WaitStatus::Exited(_, code) => {
             // If the child reported an error (e.g., setup failure), return it.
             // Otherwise, just forward the exit code without an error message.
             if let Some(msg) = child_error {
                 Err(anyhow!("{}", msg))
             } else {
-                std::process::exit(code);
+                Ok(code)
             }
         }
-        nix::sys::wait::WaitStatus::Signaled(_, sig, _) => {
+        nix::sys::wait::WaitStatus::Signaled(_, sig, _) => Ok(128 + sig as i32),
-            Err(anyhow!("Child process killed by signal {:?}", sig))
+        _ => Ok(0),
-        }
-        _ => Ok(()),
     }
 }
 

src/qemu_vm.rs

@@ -97,10 +97,19 @@ pub fn launch_qemu(config: QemuConfig) -> Result<()> {
     };
 
     let kernel_append = if let Some(ref cmd) = config.command {
-        let cmd_str = cmd.join(" ");
+        // The argv travels through the kernel cmdline, where quotes and
+        // spaces would be mangled — pass each element base64-encoded,
+        // comma-separated (the base64 alphabet contains neither). The init
+        // script decodes it back and execs the argv verbatim.
+        use base64::Engine as _;
+        let argv_b64 = cmd
+            .iter()
+            .map(|arg| base64::engine::general_purpose::STANDARD.encode(arg.as_bytes()))
+            .collect::<Vec<_>>()
+            .join(",");
         format!(
-            "console=ttyS0{} ECR_SHELL={} ECR_CMD=\"{}\" ECR_HOSTNAME={}",
+            "console=ttyS0{} ECR_SHELL={} ECR_ARGV={} ECR_HOSTNAME={}",
-            quiet_flag, shell, cmd_str, hostname
+            quiet_flag, shell, argv_b64, hostname
         )
     } else {
         format!(
@@ -226,10 +235,9 @@ fn check_kvm_capabilities() -> bool {
     }
 }
 
-/// Create an uncompressed cpio initramfs from a directory
+/// Create an uncompressed cpio initramfs from a directory.
-/// A filesystem entry for cpio archives: (name, mode, mtime, nlink, data)
+/// Entries are streamed straight to disk so large rootfs images never have
-type CpioEntry = (String, u32, u32, u32, Vec<u8>);
+/// to fit in memory as a whole archive.
-
 fn create_initramfs(rootfs: &Path) -> Result<PathBuf> {
     // Create a temporary file for the initramfs (uncompressed cpio)
     // Use a temp file in the same directory as rootfs, or fall back to /tmp
@@ -247,16 +255,26 @@ fn create_initramfs(rootfs: &Path) -> Result<PathBuf> {
     );
     pb.set_message("Creating initramfs...");
 
-    // Create the cpio archive with progress
+    let file = std::fs::File::create(&initramfs_path)
-    let cpio_data = create_cpio_archive(rootfs, &pb)?;
+        .with_context(|| format!("Failed to create {}", initramfs_path.display()))?;
-    let total_bytes = cpio_data.len() as u64;
+    let mut writer = std::io::BufWriter::new(file);
-    let file_count = pb.position();
 
-    // Write directly to file (no compression)
+    let result = write_cpio_archive(rootfs, &mut writer, &pb);
-    std::fs::write(&initramfs_path, &cpio_data).context("Failed to write initramfs file")?;
+    let flushed = writer.flush().context("Failed to flush initramfs");
+
+    // On any error, don't leave a partial archive behind
+    if let Err(e) = result.or(flushed) {
+        std::fs::remove_file(&initramfs_path).ok();
+        return Err(e);
+    }
 
     // Finish progress bar
+    let file_count = pb.position();
     pb.finish_and_clear();
+
+    let total_bytes = std::fs::metadata(&initramfs_path)
+        .map(|m| m.len())
+        .unwrap_or(0);
     veprintln!(
         "Initramfs created: {} bytes, {} files",
         total_bytes,
@@ -266,43 +284,34 @@ fn create_initramfs(rootfs: &Path) -> Result<PathBuf> {
     Ok(initramfs_path)
 }
 
-/// Create a newc-format cpio archive from a directory using the cpio crate
+/// Write the newc-format cpio archive for a directory tree, streaming to `writer`
-fn create_cpio_archive(rootfs: &Path, pb: &ProgressBar) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
+fn write_cpio_archive<W: Write>(rootfs: &Path, writer: &mut W, pb: &ProgressBar) -> Result<()> {
-    let mut archive = Vec::new();
+    // Track hard links by (device, inode): the value is the synthetic cpio
+    // inode assigned to the first occurrence. The Linux initramfs loader
+    // turns later zero-size entries sharing that inode into hard links.
+    let mut seen_inodes: std::collections::HashMap<(u64, u64), u32> =
+        std::collections::HashMap::new();
+    let mut next_ino: u32 = 1;
+    // Names of entries already written, so we can skip duplicate device nodes
+    let mut written_names: std::collections::HashSet<String> = std::collections::HashSet::new();
+    let mut total_data: u64 = 0;
 
-    // Track seen inodes to handle hard links properly
+    write_dir_entries(
-    let mut seen_inodes = std::collections::HashMap::new();
+        rootfs,
+        rootfs,
+        writer,
+        pb,
+        &mut seen_inodes,
+        &mut next_ino,
+        &mut written_names,
+        &mut total_data,
+    )?;
 
-    // Collect all entries with their data
+    veprintln!(
-    let entries = collect_entries(rootfs, rootfs, pb, &mut seen_inodes)?;
+        "Collected {} entries, {} bytes total data",
-
+        written_names.len(),
-    // Collect entry names for checking existence later
+        total_data
-    let entry_names: Vec<&str> = entries.iter().map(|(n, _, _, _, _)| n.as_str()).collect();
+    );
-
-    pb.set_message("Writing initramfs...");
-
-    // Write each entry using the cpio crate
-    for (name, mode, mtime, nlink, data) in &entries {
-        let file_size = data.len() as u32;
-
-        let builder = NewcBuilder::new(name)
-            .mode(*mode)
-            .uid(0)
-            .gid(0)
-            .nlink(*nlink)
-            .mtime(*mtime);
-
-        // Write header and get a writer
-        let mut writer = builder.write(&mut archive, file_size);
-
-        // Write the file content
-        writer
-            .write_all(data)
-            .context("Failed to write file content to cpio archive")?;
-
-        // Finish this entry (returns the underlying writer)
-        writer.finish().context("Failed to finish cpio entry")?;
-    }
 
     // Add essential device nodes for serial console
     // These are character devices (mode 0o020xxx)
@@ -317,7 +326,7 @@ fn create_cpio_archive(rootfs: &Path, pb: &ProgressBar) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
 
     for (name, mode, major, minor) in device_nodes {
         // Check if this device node already exists in the archive
-        if entry_names.contains(&name) {
+        if written_names.contains(name) {
             continue;
         }
 
@@ -331,8 +340,8 @@ fn create_cpio_archive(rootfs: &Path, pb: &ProgressBar) -> Result<Vec<u8>> {
             .rdev_minor(minor);
 
         // Device nodes have zero size
-        let writer = builder.write(&mut archive, 0);
+        let entry_writer = builder.write(&mut *writer, 0);
-        writer
+        entry_writer
             .finish()
             .context("Failed to finish device node entry")?;
     }
@@ -348,10 +357,22 @@ mount -t proc proc /proc
 mount -t sysfs sysfs /sys
 mount -t devtmpfs devtmpfs /dev 2>/dev/null || true
 
-# Set hostname from kernel cmdline
+# Parse our parameters straight from the kernel cmdline.  More robust than
+# relying on the kernel forwarding unknown key=value params to init's env.
+ECR_SHELL="/bin/sh"
+ECR_ARGV=""
+for param in $(cat /proc/cmdline); do
+    case "$param" in
+        ECR_SHELL=*) ECR_SHELL="${param#ECR_SHELL=}" ;;
+        ECR_ARGV=*) ECR_ARGV="${param#ECR_ARGV=}" ;;
+        ECR_HOSTNAME=*) ECR_HOSTNAME="${param#ECR_HOSTNAME=}" ;;
+    esac
+done
+
+# Set hostname from kernel cmdline (via procfs — no hostname binary needed)
 if [ -n "$ECR_HOSTNAME" ]; then
     echo "$ECR_HOSTNAME" > /etc/hostname
-    hostname "$ECR_HOSTNAME"
+    echo "$ECR_HOSTNAME" > /proc/sys/kernel/hostname
 fi
 
 # Create console device if missing
@@ -360,6 +381,9 @@ mknod -m 666 /dev/ttyS0 c 4 64 2>/dev/null || true
 
 # Function to poweroff - use sysrq-trigger which works without external binaries
 do_poweroff() {
+    # Give the serial console a moment to drain pending output, otherwise
+    # the last command output can be dropped when the VM powers off
+    sleep 1
     # Silence kernel printk to suppress shutdown messages
     echo 0 > /proc/sys/kernel/printk
     # 'o' means power off, see Documentation/admin-guide/sysrq.rst
@@ -371,49 +395,76 @@ do_poweroff() {
 # Trap exit to ensure poweroff runs
 trap do_poweroff EXIT
 
-# Run the shell or command
+# Rebuild the argv: each element is base64-encoded, elements are separated
-if [ -n "$ECR_CMD" ]; then
+# by commas. Decoding into "$@" avoids any shell re-parsing of the command.
-    # Run command with the specified shell
+set --
-    setsid sh -c "exec $ECR_SHELL </dev/ttyS0 >/dev/ttyS0 2>&1 -c '$ECR_CMD'"
+if [ -n "$ECR_ARGV" ]; then
+    for enc in $(printf '%s' "$ECR_ARGV" | tr ',' ' '); do
+        dec=$(printf '%s' "$enc" | base64 -d 2>/dev/null)
+        set -- "$@" "$dec"
+    done
+fi
+
+# Run the requested command verbatim, or an interactive shell in its own
+# session (setsid enables job control on the serial console)
+if [ "$#" -gt 0 ]; then
+    "$@"
 else
-    # Run interactive shell
     setsid sh -c "exec $ECR_SHELL </dev/ttyS0 >/dev/ttyS0 2>&1"
 fi
 "#;
 
-    let init_data = init_script.as_bytes();
+    write_cpio_entry(writer, "init", 0o100755, 0, 1, 0, init_script.as_bytes())?;
-    let init_builder = NewcBuilder::new("init")
-        .mode(0o100755) // executable
-        .uid(0)
-        .gid(0)
-        .nlink(1)
-        .mtime(0);
 
-    let mut init_writer = init_builder.write(&mut archive, init_data.len() as u32);
+    // Write the trailer
-    init_writer
+    newc::trailer(&mut *writer).context("Failed to write cpio trailer")?;
-        .write_all(init_data)
-        .context("Failed to write init script to cpio archive")?;
-    init_writer
-        .finish()
-        .context("Failed to finish init script entry")?;
 
-    // Write the trailer (takes ownership and returns the writer)
+    Ok(())
-    archive = newc::trailer(archive).context("Failed to write cpio trailer")?;
-
-    Ok(archive)
 }
 
-/// Collect all filesystem entries recursively
+/// Write a single newc-format cpio entry
-/// Uses a HashMap to track hard links by (device, inode) - only stores data for first occurrence
+fn write_cpio_entry<W: Write>(
-fn collect_entries(
+    writer: &mut W,
+    name: &str,
+    mode: u32,
+    mtime: u32,
+    nlink: u32,
+    ino: u32,
+    data: &[u8],
+) -> Result<()> {
+    let builder = NewcBuilder::new(name)
+        .mode(mode)
+        .uid(0)
+        .gid(0)
+        .ino(ino)
+        .nlink(nlink)
+        .mtime(mtime);
+
+    let mut entry_writer = builder.write(&mut *writer, data.len() as u32);
+    entry_writer
+        .write_all(data)
+        .with_context(|| format!("Failed to write {} to cpio archive", name))?;
+    entry_writer
+        .finish()
+        .with_context(|| format!("Failed to finish cpio entry {}", name))?;
+    Ok(())
+}
+
+/// Walk a directory tree, writing every entry to the cpio archive as it goes
+/// Hard links are handled by assigning a synthetic inode to the first
+/// occurrence of a (device, inode) pair; subsequent occurrences are written
+/// as zero-size entries reusing that inode.
+#[allow(clippy::too_many_arguments)]
+fn write_dir_entries(
     base: &Path,
     current: &Path,
+    writer: &mut impl Write,
     pb: &ProgressBar,
-    seen_inodes: &mut std::collections::HashMap<(u64, u64), String>,
+    seen_inodes: &mut std::collections::HashMap<(u64, u64), u32>,
-) -> Result<Vec<CpioEntry>> {
+    next_ino: &mut u32,
-    let mut entries = Vec::new();
+    written_names: &mut std::collections::HashSet<String>,
-    let mut total_data: u64 = 0;
+    total_data: &mut u64,
-
+) -> Result<()> {
     // Read directory entries
     let dir_entries: Vec<_> = match std::fs::read_dir(current) {
         Ok(entries) => entries.collect::<std::result::Result<_, _>>()?,
@@ -423,7 +474,7 @@ fn collect_entries(
                 current.display(),
                 e
             );
-            return Ok(entries);
+            return Ok(());
         }
     };
 
@@ -465,17 +516,22 @@ fn collect_entries(
         let relative = path.strip_prefix(base).unwrap();
         let entry_name = relative.to_string_lossy().into_owned();
 
-        // Handle hard links: only store data for first occurrence
+        // Determine (data, nlink, cpio inode).
-        let (data, nlink) = if file_type.is_file() && metadata.nlink() > 1 {
+        // The kernel's initramfs loader records the first entry of a hard-link
-            // This file has multiple hard links - check if we've seen it before
+        // group (the one carrying the data) and turns later zero-size entries
+        // with the same inode into sys_link calls.
+        let (data, nlink, cpio_ino) = if file_type.is_file() && metadata.nlink() > 1 {
             let inode_key = (metadata.dev(), metadata.ino());
-
+            match seen_inodes.get(&inode_key) {
-            if let Some(_first_path) = seen_inodes.get(&inode_key) {
+                Some(seen_cpio_ino) => {
-                // We've seen this inode before - create a hard link entry with no data
+                    // Subsequent occurrence: zero-size hard-link entry
-                (Vec::new(), metadata.nlink() as u32)
+                    (Vec::new(), metadata.nlink() as u32, *seen_cpio_ino)
-            } else {
+                }
-                // First occurrence - read the data and record this inode
+                None => {
-                seen_inodes.insert(inode_key, entry_name.clone());
+                    // First occurrence: read the data, assign a synthetic inode
+                    let cpio_ino = *next_ino;
+                    *next_ino = next_ino.wrapping_add(1);
+                    seen_inodes.insert(inode_key, cpio_ino);
                     let data = match std::fs::read(&path) {
                         Ok(data) => data,
                         Err(e) => {
@@ -483,7 +539,8 @@ fn collect_entries(
                             continue;
                         }
                     };
-                (data, metadata.nlink() as u32)
+                    (data, metadata.nlink() as u32, cpio_ino)
+                }
             }
         } else if file_type.is_file() {
             // Regular file with nlink=1
@@ -494,10 +551,10 @@ fn collect_entries(
                     continue;
                 }
             };
-            (data, 1)
+            (data, 1, 0)
         } else if file_type.is_symlink() {
             match std::fs::read_link(&path) {
-                Ok(target) => (target.to_string_lossy().into_owned().into_bytes(), 1),
+                Ok(target) => (target.to_string_lossy().into_owned().into_bytes(), 1, 0),
                 Err(e) => {
                     veprintln!("Warning: cannot read symlink {}: {}", path.display(), e);
                     continue;
@@ -505,29 +562,165 @@ fn collect_entries(
             }
         } else {
             // Directory
-            (Vec::new(), 2)
+            (Vec::new(), 2, 0)
         };
 
-        total_data += data.len() as u64;
+        *total_data += data.len() as u64;
-        entries.push((entry_name, mode, metadata.mtime() as u32, nlink, data));
+
+        write_cpio_entry(
+            writer,
+            &entry_name,
+            mode,
+            metadata.mtime() as u32,
+            nlink,
+            cpio_ino,
+            &data,
+        )?;
+        written_names.insert(entry_name);
 
         // Recurse into directories
         if file_type.is_dir() {
-            let mut sub_entries = collect_entries(base, &path, pb, seen_inodes)?;
+            write_dir_entries(
-            for (_, _, _, _, d) in &sub_entries {
+                base,
-                total_data += d.len() as u64;
+                &path,
-            }
+                writer,
-            entries.append(&mut sub_entries);
+                pb,
+                seen_inodes,
+                next_ino,
+                written_names,
+                total_data,
+            )?;
         }
     }
 
-    // Only print summary for the root directory
+    Ok(())
-    if current == base {
+}
-        veprintln!(
+
-            "Collected {} entries, {} bytes total data",
+#[cfg(test)]
-            entries.len(),
+mod tests {
-            total_data
+    use super::*;
+    use std::io::Read as _;
+
+    /// Parse a newc cpio archive into (name, ino, mode, nlink, file_size, data) tuples
+    fn parse_cpio(archive: Vec<u8>) -> Vec<(String, u32, u32, u32, u32, Vec<u8>)> {
+        let mut cursor = std::io::Cursor::new(archive);
+        let mut entries = Vec::new();
+        loop {
+            let mut reader = newc::Reader::new(&mut cursor).expect("valid cpio entry");
+            let name = reader.entry().name().to_string();
+            let ino = reader.entry().ino();
+            let mode = reader.entry().mode();
+            let nlink = reader.entry().nlink();
+            let file_size = reader.entry().file_size();
+            let mut data = Vec::new();
+            reader.read_to_end(&mut data).expect("read entry data");
+            let is_trailer = reader.entry().is_trailer();
+            // Skip the padding after the entry data before parsing the next one
+            reader.finish().expect("skip entry padding");
+            entries.push((name, ino, mode, nlink, file_size, data));
+            if is_trailer {
+                break;
+            }
+        }
+        entries
+    }
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_hard_links_share_inode() {
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+
+        // Two distinct hard-link groups, each with two names
+        std::fs::write(dir.path().join("group1.txt"), b"hello").unwrap();
+        std::fs::hard_link(
+            dir.path().join("group1.txt"),
+            dir.path().join("group1b.txt"),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(dir.path().join("group2.txt"), b"world!").unwrap();
+        std::fs::hard_link(
+            dir.path().join("group2.txt"),
+            dir.path().join("group2b.txt"),
+        )
+        .unwrap();
+
+        let pb = ProgressBar::hidden();
+        let mut archive = Vec::new();
+        write_cpio_archive(dir.path(), &mut archive, &pb).unwrap();
+
+        let entries = parse_cpio(archive)
+            .into_iter()
+            .map(|(name, ino, _, nlink, size, data)| (name, (ino, nlink, size, data)))
+            .collect::<std::collections::HashMap<String, (u32, u32, u32, Vec<u8>)>>();
+        let get = |name: &str| entries[name].clone();
+
+        // Both names of a hard link share one synthetic (nonzero) inode.
+        // readdir order decides which occurrence is walked first, so exactly
+        // one of the two entries carries the data and the other is zero-size.
+        let (ino1, nlink1, size1, data1) = get("group1.txt");
+        let (ino1b, nlink1b, size1b, data1b) = get("group1b.txt");
+        assert_eq!(nlink1, 2);
+        assert_eq!(nlink1b, 2);
+        assert_eq!(ino1, ino1b, "both names of a hard link must share an inode");
+        assert_ne!(ino1, 0, "hard-link group must get a synthetic inode");
+        assert_eq!(size1 + size1b, 5);
+        assert_eq!(
+            data1
+                .iter()
+                .chain(data1b.iter())
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<u8>>(),
+            b"hello".to_vec()
+        );
+
+        // The other group gets a different inode — this is what keeps the
+        // kernel from linking group2 names to group1's file
+        let (ino2, _, size2, data2) = get("group2.txt");
+        let (ino2b, _, size2b, data2b) = get("group2b.txt");
+        assert_eq!(ino2, ino2b);
+        assert_ne!(
+            ino2, ino1,
+            "distinct hard-link groups must not share an inode"
+        );
+        assert_eq!(size2 + size2b, 6);
+        assert_eq!(
+            data2
+                .iter()
+                .chain(data2b.iter())
+                .cloned()
+                .collect::<Vec<u8>>(),
+            b"world!".to_vec()
         );
     }
-    Ok(entries)
+
+    #[test]
+    fn test_regular_files_have_zero_inode_and_data() {
+        let dir = tempfile::tempdir().unwrap();
+        std::fs::create_dir(dir.path().join("sub")).unwrap();
+        std::fs::write(dir.path().join("sub/plain.txt"), b"plain").unwrap();
+
+        let pb = ProgressBar::hidden();
+        let mut archive = Vec::new();
+        write_cpio_archive(dir.path(), &mut archive, &pb).unwrap();
+
+        let entries = parse_cpio(archive);
+        let find = |name: &str| {
+            entries
+                .iter()
+                .find(|(n, ..)| n == name)
+                .map(|(_, ino, mode, nlink, size, data)| (*ino, *mode, *nlink, *size, data.clone()))
+                .expect("entry missing")
+        };
+
+        // Regular files with nlink=1 keep inode 0 and must keep their data
+        let (ino, _, nlink, size, data) = find("sub/plain.txt");
+        assert_eq!(ino, 0);
+        assert_eq!((nlink, size), (1, 5));
+        assert_eq!(data, b"plain");
+
+        // The init script is always appended, executable, and non-empty
+        let (_, init_mode, _, init_size, init_data) = find("init");
+        assert_eq!(init_mode, 0o100755);
+        assert!(init_size > 0);
+        assert!(init_data.starts_with(b"#!/bin/sh"));
+    }
 }